"Τη μάνα μου τη Ρούμελη ν' αγνάντευα το λαχταρώ
Ψηλά που με νανούριζες καημένo Καρπενήσι!
Τρανά πλατάνια ξεδιψούν στις βρύσες με το κρύο νερό
Σαρακατσάνα ροβολάει και πάει για να γεμίσει.

Με κρουσταλλένια σφυριχτά, σε λόγγους φεύγουν σκοτεινούς
κοτσύφια και βοσκόπουλα με τα λαμπρά τα μάτια,
νερά βροντούνε στο γκρεμό και πάνε προς τους ουρανούς
ίσια κι ορθά, σαν την ψυχή της Ρούμελης, τα ελάτια..."

Ζαχαρίας Παπαντωνίου

Κυλιόμενο

12/9/14

The Gallic Invasion of Central Greece (279-278 BC)




T
he dawn of the Epigonoi era [1] (280-30 BC) has reserved a frightening event that shocked Greece. A multitudinous horde of barbarian Gauls has carried out a large scale raid are about to wholesale looting, but and the long-term permanent establishment. It was an obvious threat to Hellenism, who had to see before something similar from the invasion of the Persians of Xerxes in 480 BC. Indeed, the historical circumstance was even more difficult, as the Greeks were already following a downward path, completely opposite from the bloom of values ​​of the Classical age. However, they found the vigor and the bravery to confront the wild Gauls, in the eminently defensive position of the Greeks, the Thermopylae.


General situation - First contacts between Greeks and Gauls

A
lready from the 4th BC century, the northern Balkans were colonized by the Celts, such as Greeks used to call these people. It was a multitudinous nation, actually a medley of tribes that soon was forced to seek new lands for settlement. As people they were warlike. A first contact with them was made ​​by Alexander the Great through diplomacy. The Celts fearing his power agreed for a peaceful adjacency, even for military collaboration if needed, as long as he was campaigning in Asia. Thus initially they raided against Illyrian and Thracian tribes (Pausanias CH.19.5) without yet risking a major conflict with the more capable in combat, Greeks. But the death of Alexander and the repeated conflicts that were plagued Greece in the next years, dispelled this “wolf-friendship” (insincere friendship) and sharpened the Celtic mood of raiding Greek lands.
Gaul leader

  Gathering huge forces of infantry and cavalry, the Celts were divided into three groups. The first, led by Cerethrius will raided against the Triballi (in the territory of modern Bulgaria), the second group with leaders Brennus and Acichorius aimed the ancient Paionia (now Skopje) and the third group with Bolgius would raid the Illyrians and Macedonians. (Pausanias CH.19.7,  Ioustinos. X.)
   The mainland Greece in that period was significantly weakened. The continuous conflicts of the Successors had caused extensive material catastrophes and they were depriving many capable men from the defense of the motherland that difficult time. The great leaders were missing, while those who there were, they were absent for various reasons (Pyrrhus of Epirus was campaigning in Italy and Antigonus Gonatas was trying to recover the Macedonian throne). The king of Macedon Ptolemy Keraunos would try first to check the gallic expansion.

Conflict with the Macedonian Kingdom

A
pproaching Macedonia from the west, Bolgius already had spread the terror. Ptolemy, who snootily and arrogantly rejected the proposed help of Dardanians and Bolgius's requirement to pay tax to avoid attack, prepared his army. Despite the incitements of his generals, he marched directly against the invaders with insufficient forces. In the fierce battle which followed[2] Ptolemy charged the Gauls, but he suffered many injuries, while the elephant who was riding collapsed to the ground, dragging him in the fall. The Gauls arrested him still alive, beheaded him and rambled his head, nailed to a spear. On this sight, the Macedonian army scattered and those who avoided death were captured. (Ioustinos. CCT)
   The absolute chaos dispersed in Macedonia as well as the raiders sluiced out undisturbed looting the countryside. Only the walled cities avoided destruction, as well as the barbarians had any knowledge of battering art. Meleagros, Ptolemy's brother, came to the throne but was deposed after two months, either account of incapacity, either because of his relationship with the pernicious Ptolemy. The kingship was assigned to Antipater, but nor he managed to reverse the situation. Ultimately, a nobleman named Sosthenes rallied the Macedonians, gathered forces and began the fight against the invaders. His determination buckled the Galatians, who in any case gathered enough spoils, they evacuated Macedonia. (Ioust. CCT Vorts. D.V.7, Paus. CH.19.7)
   The rich booty that Volgios availed, didn't leave the other chief, Vrennos, unimpressed. He then managed to associate Akichorius and other Gallic chieftains, claiming that the riches of Greece are fabulous and that the Greeks are debilitated and vulnerable. Thus, he gathered a huge horde, which the ancient authors estimate at over[3] 200 thousand, without the civilian population that was following.
   The barbarian hordes were launched early in the spring of 278 BC. A portion of 20.000 men under Leonnorio and Loutario was detached and headed for the land of Dardanians, while the others continued to Macedonia. The Sosthenes resisted again and it seems that finally compelled the Galatians to seek new lands. The Vrennos then decided to move to Delphi, having heard a lot about their riches. So the terrible Celts descended on Thessaly without major losses. (Vortselas,  D.V.7)


Concentration of Greek army - Arrival of the Galatians

W
hen they heard this news, the hearts of the Greeks were filled of fear, but also and determination. Already they knew about the ills that were suffered the Macedonians, Thracians, Peonians, and so many others from the wild raiders. Furthermore were reaching other news for atrocities against Thessalians. Faced with the risk of annihilation stepped aside temporarily their differences and rallied. Pausanias (CH.19.12) describes characteristically that so there was a common mood, in the cities and in each man separately, or to defeat or perish”.
 
The ancient coastline of the Gulf Maliakos
   As an ideal location for addressing of numerous Celtic hordes was deemed the narrow of Thermopylae. From the time of Medes, this narrowed passage was enlarged due to silting of the river Sperchios. Nevertheless he still had low amplitude[4] and was offered for defensive struggle. The Greek forces gathered at this point. The Boeotians sent 10.000 hoplites and 500 cavalrymen with leaders Kephisodotos, Thearidas, Diogenes and Lyssandros, the Phocians 3.000 pedestrians and 500 cavalrymen under Kritoboulos and Antiochus, the Locrians - opposite of the island Atalanti they sent 700 men under Meidias, and the Megarians 400 hoplites under the leadership of Hipponicus. The dynamic present they stated the Aetolians with more than 7.000 hoplites, 790 light infantry and with unspecified number of cavalry, with the generals Polyarchy, Polyfronas and Lakratis. The Athenians, to whom they commissioned the captaincy - as a result of historical glory and prestige - have provided 1.000 pedestrians, 500 cavalrymen and all the combative triremes, with quarterback Kallipos, son of Moirokles. Finally, the king of Macedonia, Antigonus Gonatas[5] assisted with a body of 500 mercenaries under Aristodemos, while the Seleucid king of Syria Antiochus I also sent 500 men that had Telesarchos as a chief (Pausanias CH.20.3-5). The Peloponnesians they thought of shortsighted and remained uninvolved, were fortified behind the walls of the Isthmus of Corinth, based on the fact that the Galatians did not have navy.
   When the Greeks were informed that the Galatians had arrived in Magnesia and Fthiotis, they sent all their cavalry and a snippet 1000 light armed to prevent them to pass the river Sperchius. This force destroyed the bridges over the river and encamped near the banks of the river. But Vrennos, although barbarous, was an experienced in war and resourceful strategically. Thus, reaching to Spercheus River, he resorted to the following trick to relieved of the Greek force opposite. He formed an excerpt of 10.000 men, the tallest men in his army, who were all good swimmers. This power sent to cross the river near to his estuaries, where it widens more to form swampy areas, away from the damaged bridges. The Galatians passed from that point on silently, using the great Gallic shields as rafts, while the taller men crossed the standing water walking. The Greek force, just became aware of this movement, he left and was joined again with the rest of the army at Thermopylae. (Pausanias, X, 20, 6-8)


Conflicts at Thermopylae

V
rennos unhindered now he obliged the residents of the wider area to rebuild the bridges. They obeyed without delay, as well as they feared and additionally they wanted to rid from the blood thirsty barbarians who ravaged their land. Passing the Spercheus the Celts they moved to Heraclea[6], setting fire, by plundering and by killing those who they were found in the fields. But they not attempted to attack against the city, which had a strong wall and a resolute garrison from locals and Aitolians. From defectors were informed that the main army of the Greeks was located at Thermopylae. So, Vrennos, strategically thinking, he left Heraclea and he moved for conquest of the Straits. (Pausanias CH.20.9, Vortselas D.V.7)
Celts horsemen
   The next day when the sun rose, the Gaul leader sure of himself [7], he ordered the attack. The savages Celts charged down with fury and excess courage, without maintaining any consistency in their array. As warriors were terrible, most of them were tall, while Pausanias reports that they not were losing their momentum and their irrational fury, or when they were accepting many bad traumas from swords and hatchets. If they had been knocked by arrows or javelins, were pulling out from the open their wounds and they were throwing against the Greeks or they were holding and they were using them, as long as they were still alive. Unlike the Greeks were slightly armored. Most were fighting naked while their shields, though larger, was not as resistant as in Greeks. The Greeks were waiting silent and were lined up with class, which they maintained throughout the duration of the battle. Behind the line of phalanx of the hoplites were located spearmen, archers and slingshots-men that constantly were contesting against the enemies. The cavalry of both sides did not take part in the battle, not only because of narrowness of space, but also because the ground is rocky, while the creeks and the torrents make it slippery at many points. Amidst all these regularly disadvantages of the Galatians was added and that the Athenian ships approached the point of collision, sailing in muddy waters, something very bold and dangerous. From there case affected the enemies with archers and any other weapons they had.
  The situation had become quite unfavorable for the Galatians, as they was crammed into a narrow space and they could not fight effectively, and had been three times and four times more losses than those who they had caused. Their leaders gave the signal of retreat. The order was executed in complete confusion and disorder, with many other are trampled and lost in muddy swamps, significantly increasing the losses. (Pausanias, X, 21,1-4)
   On that day, the Athenians showed the greatest bravery from the Greeks. Particularly was distinguished the young Athenian Kydias, who for the first time took part in a battle, which was destined to be his last, as well as he was killed. After the end of battle, the Hellenes they buried their dead and skyleysan[8] the corpses of enemies. In contrast, the Galatians they did not send even a herald to ask for permission to bury their dead, being indifferent if remain unburied or if they become food for animals that eat corpses. Pausanias considers that the Galatians in this way they want to intimidate their enemies and that they do not feel pity for the dead. The Greek losses in the battle testified in 40 men, while the Galatians were not identified exactly as well as many men were lost in the mire. (Pausanias CH, 21, 4-6)
   Seven days later, a Galatian force has attempted to go up on the mountain Oiti, from a narrow path that was in the surrounding area. The aim was to outflank the positions of the Greeks, and to plunder the temple of Athena, which was located in the mountain above Heraclea and which was rich in votive offerings. The safekeeping of the passage was assigned to Phocians and to the soldiers of Telesarchos. In the conflict that was followed the Galatians were intercepted, at the cost of the life of Telesarchos, who he was characterized as “a man with the greater willingness than anyone else, for the defense of the Greeks”.



Anti-distraction of Galatians - Destruction of Kallion

W
hile the remaining Celts leaders watched amazed the situation who had reached an impasse, Vrennos was thinking how could distract the Aetolians from the Greek array. He knew that - from the Greeks - were the most militant worthy and their withdrawal would weaken significantly the defense of Thermopylae. So, he formed a force of 40.000 pedestrians and about 800 horsemen with chiefs Orestorio and Komvouti, entrusting them to intrude on Aetolia (Pausanias CH, 22, 2). This excerpt passed again Spercheus River northwards, so that the Greeks at Thermopylae to not perceive their true direction. Proceeding to Ypati, they turned south and after a few days march they arrived to Kallion[9].

Η Αιτωλία καθισμένη σε γαλατικές
ασπίδες (νόμισμα Αιτωλών)
   The ancient Kallion (or Kallipolis) was an important Aetolian city. It was built next to Velouchovo[10], a newest village, in a short distance northwest of Lidoriki. There was center Aetolic tribe of Ofioneon (or Ofieon) and the 4th BC century was a member of the Aetolian League. He had significant strategic importance because was located in the passage of the valley upper Dafnos and in the passage of the “Narrow”, in the only direct road from the valley of the river Sperchios in the interior of Aetolia. Today the waters of the artificial lake in the river Mornos cover the area where it was built the ancient city. An exception is the site of the ancient acropolis located in the same position with the so-called “castle of Velouchovo” just on the hill, next to the passage of the “Narrow”.
   The furious Galatians attacked unexpectedly in the Kallion and they committed horrific crimes. Pausanias describes in an eloquent manner: «… they slaughtered every male humans, and the elders and the infants still breastfed, while those infants who had been done thicker with milk, the Galatians killed them, drank their blood and ate the meat. The women ... rushed o kill themselves, as the town was conquered. Those found them alive, they have brought in any kind of debasement using unusual violence. Those women who they could find the swords of the Galatians commit suicide with them, the others not long in finding the fatal from starvation and insomnia, why the lewd barbarians they did bad acts continuously, the one after another, and they  copulating with women who were dieing and with those women who they were already dead”. (CH, 22, 3-4)
   It is not excluded, the incidences of cannibalism to be consequence of the difficult - nutritional - situation in which the invaders had come. John Vortselas cites that “the around (of Thermopylae) country had been ravaged deft ...”, while the abhorrent behavior shows a tactical expediency, since the main objective of Vrennos was reached. The Aetolians who were at Thermopylae, when were informed the fact by messengers they departed immediately thirsty for revenge and determined to save their other cities. Back in Aetolia, men who were in fighting age were enlisted, while the old men took up arms, as well as the fever of the preparations and the seriousness of the situation drifted them away. In the preparation they took part even women since their desire for revenge was bigger than of men. (Pausanias CH.22.5-6)


The Return of the Aetolians - Revenge in «Kokkalia»

T
he excerpt of Orestorios and Komvouti ransacked the houses of Kallion and by delivering the city in flames, took the way back following the same route. Force Achaean hoplites from Patras[11], who eventually wins the Galatians on their leaving and rushed to collide with them. But it suffered enough losses due to the militancy of the Celts and because of their significant numerical disadvantage, and by the lack of the main army of the Aetolians. However they - as it seems - lost no time and quickly by returning they occupied some strategic passages. (Pausanias CH.22.6, Vortselas D.V.7)
Monument in "Kokkalia"


   The outraged Aetolians, with continuous attacks, were launched immediately to harass the invaders. Were placed in inaccessible places along the route that the invaders were following. From there they were throwing spears, arrows and stones with great accuracy due of the great number and the inadequate shielding of the enemies. When the Galatians persecuting them, then were fleeing, and were returning once the stalking was stopping. The excerpt of Celts seems that forced to make long detours to find a safer passageway to the valley of river Sperchios. Moving on, they arrived in location, what is known today as Kokkalia”. This point is located in the yoke that joins the mountain Oxia (Beech) with the mountain Tymfristos (or Veloychi), northeast of the village Krikello. According to tradition, many Galatians were killed[12] there, so a few years later the land was white from their bones. It is said that up to nowadays the agricultural work reveal bones, metal helmets and weaponry. At this point there is a monument of the battle with an inscription. “Kokkalia” was the informal revenge for the destruction of Kallion, while from the initial body of 40.000 men fewer than half was returned to Thermopylae. (Pausanias CH.22.7)


Ephialtes relives - Disengagement of the Greeks, march of Galatians to Delphi

N
evertheless the main army of Celts has remained before Thermopylae. From the stagnant situation, the way out for Vrennos they showed the ... residents of Heraclea and Ainianes. They undertook to drive him to the backs of Greeks following the path Anopaia, just as had done Ephialtes in the years of the Medes. Probably, they made like that, not from anti-Greek mood, but to get rid from the barbarians who were desolating their land. Vrennos overjoyed he left his position in Akichorio, with explicit orders to attack when they will encircle the Greeks. He also created a body of 40.000 men, selected by him, with whom he will go up on Anopaia path. That day in Oeti was prevailing dense fog which was hiding even the sun, significantly reducing the visibility of Phocians, who were guarding the path. Those, did not realize the Galatians, only when were approached enough. In the onslaught of barbarians who was followed the Phocians defended bravely, but eventually they were forced to retreat. But they took care to inform the Greeks at Thermopylae for this development, before the excerpt of Vrennos encircle them. Then the Athenians with their triremes rushed to glean the Greeks, before being trapped. So the Greek army was disbanded and everyone went for defense of his motherland. (Pausanias CH.22.8-12)
   Conquering with this way the Straits of Thermopylae, Vrennos was initiated immediately to Delphi, without even waiting Akichorio. The second left a part of the army to guard the camp in Heraclea and was launched to forestall Vrennos. When they heard about the onward march of the Celts, the inhabitants of Delphi were terrified and they took refuge to the oracle. For defense of Delphi were quick Phocians from all cities, 400 soldiers Locrians from Amphissa, while from the Aetolians initially they came few, but later arrived a force 1.200 men under Philomilos. The main and best forces of the Aetolians conducted sabotage match, by making frequent attacks against the rearguard and luggage of Akichorios (Pausanias CH.22.13). Consequently, he was obliged to progressing very slowly, a fact which had decisive consequences subsequently.
   Vrennos reaching with his power at Delphi was proposed to officers and soldiers to encamp a few days in the plain, as the course was tedious. The Heads Emanos and Thessaloros were in favor of direct attack, not to give time to the Greeks to organize. But the soldiers had dissipated in the outdoors and they plundered the abandoned villages and fields by finding many foods. By circumventing any sense of discipline the soldiers wandering drunk and they refused to obey to the injunctions of superiors. This evolution gave precious time to the Greeks in order to better organize and gather more forces. (Ioust. XXIV)



Defeat of the Galatians at Delphi - Catastrophic retreat

T
he next day, Vrennos spoke to his soldiers[13] before it can order the attack. He showed them the golden statues and magnificent buildings of Delphi and he urged them to rush acquire them, by arousing professed their predatory mood. Then, the barbarians influenced by the intoxication of the previous day still, attacked massively, without coordinated manner, but with tremendous momentum. The Greeks were opposed defense with valence, repulsing and killing those who they attempted to climb to the mountain top, but was subsisting themselves enough losses (Ioust. CCT). The ancient sources quote intense and the mythological element as well as - as it is said - there was and divine intervention” with earthquakes, lightning and thunderbolts, and there are reports for appearance of supernatural beings like of heroes Yperochos, Laodokos, Pyrrhus and Fylakos. From those Phocians who fell, Aleximachos was distinguished particularly. (Pausanias CH.23.1-3)
Dieing Gaul (Capitolion Museum, Rome)
    With the advent of night bitter cold was prevailed in the area. Was noted snow scurry and hail in the midst of summer, while huge rocks which were detaching from Mount Parnassus and by scrolling were crushed many enemies together. By the sunrise the Greeks were attacked, excluding Phocians, who knowing the area well, they followed some craggy passages and were found in the back of the Celts, by hitting them fearlessly with arrows and javelins. Initially they resisted bravely, especially the bodyguards of Vrennos, which were consisted from tall and full-bodied men. However, were accepting blows on all sides and soon they were found in a bad position. Sometime Vrennos was injured and unconscious he was transferred out of combat, a fact which broke the morale of the Galatians. So, they began to withdraw from the area by killing the injured and generally those who were powerless to follow and they encamped every time there who it found them the sunset. (Pausanias CH.23.4-6)
   The darkness that fell has reserved the terror and havoc on the persecuted most invaders. Some soldiers were occupied by paranoia and panicky and they claimed that they were listening clatter of cavalry and onslaught of enemies. The confusion was broadcasted rapidly throughout the Gaulish camp. Within chaos the men had taken up arms and they began to kill each other in the dark. Incapable to recognize who was their adjacent, nor from weapons, nor by the voice actually they believed that the Greeks attacked. The local residents, who were guarding their animals in the surrounding fields, they reported the fact to the Greeks. So then, the Phocians armed with courage were conducting most daring attacks. Were guarding better their settlements and were resisting strongly, when the Galatians were attempting invasions in search of food and other necessary. Soon there was a lack of food in the hostile army. The total losses in the campaign in Phocis were estimated to 6.000 from the battles, 10.000 from the nighttime confusion and also 10.000 from hunger and cold. (Pausanias CH.23.7-10)
   The Athenians when were informed by their envoys, the developments and the plight that occurred to the invaders, they sent army to assist in the persecution. Traversing Boeotia was joined with the Boeotian forces. By following the Galatians retreating, were setting up ambushes in narrow passages and were attacking in their rearguard, killing those who they were delaying. The other one Galatian leader Akichorios succeeded to unite his power with that of Vrennos in an attempt to cover his retreat. Admitting most ceaselessly attacks by the Aetolians and with terrible losses they arrived at camp of Heraclea. Vrennos injured seriously and fearing the rage and the shame of his compatriots for their calamities that them swept away, killed himself with his sword, after he got drunk with unmixed wine. (Pausanias CH.23.12, Diod.22.9)



Epilogue

C
oncluding the narrative of this dramatic story, to mention that the Galatians - on their leaving - attempted to cross the river Spercheus. But were faced Malieis and Thessalians who were pooled, who were thirsting for revenge and brought about another heavy blow (Pausanias CH.23.14). Most ancient sources testify that nobody enemy did not survive, though that is probably not true. It is important that the Greeks were made a real feat comparable to that against the Medes, and even under very clearly more difficult conditions. You bold enough to say that the victorious outcome of this war is a further proof that the Greeks thrive in the difficulties.
   With regard to the Galatians, they let indelible their stigma in the land of Central Greece with their own bones in the homonymous locality. The air of Mount Tymfristos carries even snippets of the terrifying screams, a true nemesis from those who massacred in Kallion.


George K. Balomenos



SOURCES

  1. Pausanias: Periegesis in Greece Ekdotiki of Athens, 1981.
  2. Vortselas : FTHIOTIS”, editions KASTALIA, 1973.
  3. Ioustinos: “Book Called Historical”, Anemi, Digital Library of Modern Greek Studies.
  4. Alex. Paradisi: “Forts and castles of Greece”, P. Efstathiades, 1976, Athens.
  5. Magazine “World War History, Issue 11, 2006, article “Gauls in Greece”.
  6. Diodorus Sikeliotis: “Historical Library”, source from the Internet.
  7. http://en.wikipedia.org/
  8. https://el.wikipedia.org/
  9. http://www.culture.gr/ (Website Ministry of Culture and Sport of Greece)



FOOTNOTES


[1] After the battle of Corupedium (281 BC) where for the last time they clashed former generals of Alexander (Successors) begins the season of Epigonoi (i.e. descendants of the Successors).
[2] Early in the spring of 279 BC (Pausanias Boeotika-Fokika”, Ekdotike Athenon, 1981, pp. 369, footnote 4.)
[3] Pausanias mentions 152.000 pedestrians and 22.400 horsemen (the total number of horsemen was triple including the auxiliaries) while Ioustinos mentions 15.0000 pedestrians and 15.000 horsemen.
[4] The ancient coastline is calculated on approximately the height the Old National Road Athens-Lamia.
[5] Antigonus came into conflict with Sosthenes, but was defeated and eventually ascended to the throne after the death of Sosthenes, two years later. (http://el.wikipedia.org/ Lemma: Sosthenes of Macedonia
    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosthenes_of_Macedon )
[6] The ancient Heraclea was situated south of Lamia, the first hills of Mount Oiti. Some parts of the walls they seem, following the old national road to village Bralos.
[7] In Pausanias makes impression that Vrennos not consulted a clairvoyant or even someone augur. (CH.21.1)
[8] They removed the weapons of dead enemies.
[9] Pausanias: “Periegesis in Greece”, Ekdotiki of Athens, “Boeotius-Fokika”, 1981, pp. 376, note 4.
[10] In 1915 it was renamed again in Kallio, a name that it is still preserved.
[11] The only Achaean city, which it has assisted the Aetolians.
[12] The sources are unclear as to the type of conflict (battle, ambush, encirclement, etc ...).
[13] Ioustinos delivers that at Delphi, Vrennos had 65.000 men while  the Greeks had 4.000.

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